An Introduction to Jo Kondo’s Sen no Ongaku Music of 1973 to 1980^{^[1]}

John Cole

The composer Jo Kondo has a very special position in contemporary music, not just in his home country but internationally. Along with teaching in Japan (at present, he holds a professorship at Ochanomizu University in Tokyo, and continues to teach a composition class at Tokyo University of Fine Arts and Music). He has taught in England, Canada and the United States and he is a prolific writer, author of five books and over one hundred publications on topics covering all musical matters ranging from his own music and music aesthetics, to interviews with important contemporary composers. While Kondo's music has been discussed in various publications, an examination of his entire body of work has not yet been attempted.

An examination of Kondo’s entire oeuvre shows a surprising consistency of style in works from 1973 to the present. Kondo refers to this style as "sen no ongaku" which he translates into English as "linear music". One of the main objectives of this study is to show how Kondo is able to adapt the essential elements of sen no ongaku to compositions of various instrumental combinations and scale, from solo and chamber works, to compositions for much larger ensembles and orchestral pieces. The year 1973 is significant as it was the year Kondo started overtly composing with sen no ongaku, and the year 1980 represents a change in style in which vertical relations became emphasized over horizontal relations. Thus, examining in detail the pieces from 1973 to 1980 it will be possible to contextualize the origin and particular points of development of sen no ongaku in Kondo’s music.

Another of the decisions made at the onset of this study was to limit the discussion to a concrete examination of his scores and recordings. While some aesthetic and philosophical problems are touched on, this enquiry is concerned in no way with any extra‑musical or philosophical concerns outside the music itself. Thus wherever possible, an attempt will be made to rely on aural confirmation in recordings and to avoid both claims based on score analysis without connection to the concrete sound, and the search for obscure and impalpable theoretical connections.

The Earliest Definition of 'Sen no ongaku '

Chronologically, the first mention of the term 'sen no ongaku' in the composer's writings is found in the liner notes of the album of the same name released in 1974. These were written to briefly introduce his new theory and to explain the compositional methodology of Orient Orientation (1973), Standing (1973), Falling (1973), Click Crack (1973), and Pass (1974) recorded on this album.

Kondo's note rows of sen no ongaku works are very close in character to conventional melodies in terms of their continuity and general contour. But they lack the specific fixed "positionings" of individual notes grouped in such a way that a clear melody is perceived. The main aspect of melodic tone grouping that Kondo is interested in preserving is the manner “of note‑binding”, or a note's potential for connection with other notes. If the note rows stray too far from conventional melody, with too few or no connections between tones, the groupings tend to resemble chance music where a sound's particular positioning in relation to other sounds is redundant.

Because the “binding relations” of sen no ongaku tone rows are not as rigidly fixed as conventional melody, the individual notes have more autonomy, and are capable of being positioned in a great variety of potential groupings or "manifold positionings." Because of the relative looseness of the groupings, a row of a sen no ongaku work may be interpreted in a myriad of ways depending on the particular predilection of each individual listener.

Finally, and most importantly, one of the most definitive aspects of sen no ongaku is the musical continuity which Kondo explains in the following manner: "'Linear Music,’ considered as a row of tones articulated in single note units, acquires a continuity based on an endless pulse."^{^[7]} These words of Kondo written in 1974, succinctly define an important aspect of sen no ongaku which we will examine repeatedly and in detail throughout the analyses of this study.

Terminology: “Sound Shadow” and “Sound Grouping”

Two important terms appearing for the first time in the liner notes of 1974, which Kondo used to explain his new theory of sen no ongaku were “sound shadow” and “sound groupings.”^{^[8]} Defining Kondo's “sound shadow” in a concise manner is difficult as the only written description of the term by the composer in the liner notes to his first LP album, is somewhat abstruse.^{^[9]} The five works on this album however, suggest certain concrete implications of the term. While ‘sound shadows’ can take many forms, one of the more common of these is that of a tone or continuous sound directly following a leading voice, most often in the form of a staggered repetition of a single note. The ‘sound shadow’ technique first appears in the very first work written in sen no ongaku style, Orient Orientation (Example 5).

Example 5: Orient Orientation: page 2, system 7

(The instrumentation of this work is for any two melody instruments of the same kind)

The function of the “sound shadow” is to draw attention to the note sounding immediately before, in order to reinforce the independence of this note as an entity in and of itself. The reciprocal relationship between sounds and “sound shadows” employed here has the dual function of not only drawing the listener's attention toward the individual tones, but also of discouraging the tendency of the listener to hear the pitches as part of larger conventional melodic groupings.

As we can see from the above explanations, it is clear that for Kondo,”‘sound shadows” have two functions. The first is the framing of individual tones in order to highlight their independence from each other, and the second consists of the "positioning of tones within a compatible succeeding relationship" through the delicate rhythmic placement of the shadow tone.^{^[14]} Kondo's conception of a “row of tones” here is far from structural. For him a row of tones is less a collection of material for building and constructing, than a random selection of pitches used for experimenting with “shadow articulation”. The consistent use of “shadow articulation” throughout a work is one method used by Kondo to avoid the formation of conventional note groupings.

The term “sound groupings" refers to the way pitches are arranged in a composition. Stated simply, they can be grouped in one of two ways: vertically (harmonically) or horizontally (melodically). While both methods of grouping are used in Kondo's linear music, in most of the works from the first period horizontal groupings of sounds are more prominent than vertical groupings.

Before moving on to a detailed description of the note rows an important point in the definition of a sen no ongaku row must be clarified, namely that Kondo's definition of a sen no ongaku row should not be confused in any way with a 12‑tone row or a serial row. Kondo later uses the term “pitch gamut” to dispel any connection with the latter two terms.^{^[15]} One of the most important distinguishing features of linear music pitch gamuts is their 'non structural' nature.^{^[16]}

Kondo's theory of sen no ongaku centered on a new method of grouping sounds. This new method of organization or "spatialization" of pitches avoided strong tonal centers, melodic climaxes and functional harmony. “Pitch gamuts” in linear music can be considered to have a loose correspondence to a “tone row” or melody, but due to the lack of tight groupings of notes, the often rhythmically irregular positioning of sounds in time, and the careful attention given to the self‑sufficiency of each sound in the line, we must consider Kondo's horizontal groupings of tones a radical departure from the idea of melody in the conventional sense.

Kondo's horizontal groupings differ further from traditional melody in their aimlessness or non‑directionality. Because Kondo's “rows of tones” are organized in a non‑hierarchical manner with a clear absence of goal-directed movement, the individual notes of these rows float in time in an often rhythmically and harmonically ambiguous state. The most important objective of this new pitch organization is the maintenance of the self‑sufficiency of each tone when it is sounded. Whil we can consider Kondo's pitch gamuts as a kind of structural foundation of each work, they are not treated in a conventionally structuralist manner. That is to say that the individual pitches of these gamuts are not combined in sound groupings to form a greater whole, but are rather grouped in a manner that encourages their mutual independence, a kind of semi‑autonomous state.

Kondo's intention here is to encourage a different kind of listening ‑ an attention to individual sounds over conventional melodic and harmonic groupings of sounds. This is not to say that Kondo is unconcerned with the relationships between the individual sounds but rather that he wishes to avoid "the problem posed by sound grouping¼centered on the structure of sound aggregates [resulting] from the accumulation of tones"^{^[17]} which suggest conventional expressive melodic formations.

In order to encourage this kind of listening, the particular manner in which sounds are grouped is of the utmost importance. If certain sounds in a pitch gamut are placed closer together than others, the ear naturally groups them as a distinctively identifiable unit setting them apart from other less dense groupings. If, on the other hand, all pitches are placed relatively equidistant from each other, the individual tones lose their self‑sufficiency and are subsumed into a rhythmically static whole. Kondo is interested in creating an ambiguous state in which note groupings of greater or lesser density cannot be readily distinguished from each other. The composition of these early linear music works represents Kondo's first grappling with a delicate balancing act ‑ a searching for a means of grouping sounds to achieve what he later termed "the proper degree of ambiguity and vagueness."^{^[18]} He explains his theory of the function of note groupings in the following manner:

¼if the groupings are too vague, the sounds lose their mutual relationships, and the outcome resembles Cage's chance music. If on the other hand, the groupings are too unambiguous, the listener ends up listening only to the resulting structure and falling prey to its expressive effects. It is essential to find the proper balance, an arrangement where sounds are heard as mutually connected by groupings, and yet each sound keeps its own individuality without becoming completely submerged under the upper level structures.^{^[19]}

Kondo explains this balance in more concrete terms when speaking about Sight Rhythmics (1975) in the same article:

In short there is a melody‑like structure, but it is never unambiguously established; it is almost a melody, yet not quite. The listener can feel that a melody‑like structure exists (which is precisely the syntactic device I use to bind the individual sounds together), but he is still able to recognize each individual sound in its own right. He perceives the individual sounds through a 'melodic prism' as it were.^{^[20]}

As we can see from these two quotations, Kondo's theories regarding sound groupings extend beyond a purely structural concern with how pitches can be ordered or combined in a composition to form a coherent whole as in Schoenberg. It is through the employment of a melody‑like structure that Kondo is able to focus on what interests him most ‑ encouraging of an active kind of listening, from instant to instant, in which the listener groups the individual sounds of the work into various configurations based on their own preferences.

Almost all of the works composed in this period conform to the characteristics of the new, sen no ongaku style in terms of their extremely sparse texture, static quality and the use of a single melodic line as their basic material. From 1973 Kondo had found his voice, and in this year alone wrote no less than six works to outline his new theories. The abrupt shift in style in 1973 was a conscious one as we can see from his desire to explain his new theory in detail in the first two chapters of his book Sen no ongaku. This stylistic shift is even more striking in retrospect when we consider how important the ideas outlined in Sen no ongaku were in the formation of a distinctive style, which can be recognized throughout the composer's entire body of work from the first “linear music” pieces to the present.

There are a few works in this period, however, which do not so easily conform to the characteristics of the new, sen no ongaku style. We will begin this section with a brief discussion of these works. These exceptions are Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing (1973) for string quartet, MINE (1974) for chorus, Ashore (1974) a work of indeterminate duration for tape, flute, piano, electric organ, harp contrabass, percussion and harmonica, Kekai‑Sekai (1976) for mixed chorus and Riverrun (1977) for tape. We will focus on only one of these works, Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing, which retains aspects of both pre‑sen no ongaku and sen no ongaku style.

Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing

Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing, for string quartet and cowbells, is somewhat hard to categorize stylistically.^{^[21]} Although it was written after Orient Orientation, and does display some characteristics of sen no ongaku, in terms of its overall sound world and quality of musical gestures, this composition has affinities with the pieces written before 1973. In particular it has a certain likeness to the earlier work Breeze (1970) through its use of graphic notation, labyrinthine instructions for the four performers, its focus on attentive listening, and its experimental atmosphere. It has connections to the new sen no ongaku style in terms of its formal clarity, stark reduction of musical material, and fixation and limitation of musical elements. Perhaps most importantly, this is the first composition to use rhythmic unison which is the most important structural aspect forming the backbone of almost all works written in sen no ongaku style.

Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing was the last piece in Kondo's oeuvre to include extensive detailed instructions for the performer. It is one of only four works by the composer written in graphic notation.^{^[22]} From this point on, with only one exception (Jo‑ka), all of Kondo's work is conventionally notated. The score includes five charts with an accompanying page of instructions. One of the five charts (referred to as Chart 1 in Kondo's instructions), is a scordatura and fingering position chart for the four string instruments (Example 9).

The remaining four charts (lettered A, B, C and D in the score), are written in graphic notation. Because all four charts are so similar in appearance, we need only refer to one example. Chart A is shown below (Example 10). Because the instruction sheet explaining this chart is so comprehensive, it is included here in its entirety. A quick glance through this page of instructions is the simplest way of grasping the technical details of the work.

Kondo favors a strict reduction of material and fixation and limitation of musical events to create his musical image. Kondo's directions are very concise with the single parameter of pitch being the only indeterminate element of the composition. Compared to the work Breeze, which also employs indeterminate elements, Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing is a much more tightly controlled work. This control is manifest in the notation, through the very clear treatment of the four parameters of pitch, duration, dynamics and timbre.

The most notable aspect of Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing is that Kondo is able to articulate such a clear musical image through graphic notation. An important aspect of this notation is the careful balancing of indeterminate and determinate elements. If indeterminate elements are too predominant, formal clarity is lost. On the other hand, if every musical parameter of the work is too tightly controlled, the piece loses flexibility and spontaneity, which are both essential qualities contributing to the playful atmosphere and character of the composition.

An unusual feature, which contributes greatly to the character and identity of this work is the inclusion of four cowbells, each of different pitch to be played by the four string players. Kondo uses the cowbells in a structural, rather than coloristic manner, to punctuate pauses at the ends of musical lines, and to amplify breaks in continuity. The inclusion of these unusual non‑pitched instruments into an otherwise conventional ensemble is a device used by Kondo to offset the listener's expectation, by adding an unstable element into an otherwise conventional sound world. We will see this technique in many future compositions.

The clarity of the piece can be seen in the way Kondo organizes large sections of material in a strict formal scheme. In the top right hand side of the sheet of instructions (Example 11) we see a figure designating the particular order in which charts A to D are to be played by each performer. The work is divided into two major sections which Kondo terms "cyles." The partitioning of the work into two contrasting cycles is an important formal stratagem which helps to structure the work in two important ways. First, the re-inclusion of the A and B charts from Cycle 1 in Cycle 2 aids in the comprehension of a quite abstract sound world through repetition. Second, a kind of musical development is suggested through the introduction of new material (charts C and D only) in the second cycle.

The use of rhythmic unison in Cycle 1 should be noted, as it is the first appearance of a technique Kondo will employ in most of the sen no ongaku works to follow. Rhythmic unison is used here to structure sounds not organized in conventional harmonic or melodic groupings. From the listener’s point of view, this aspect of the perception of things sounding together and things sounding apart becomes very important in a work employing few recognizable syntactic devices.

While the jagged gestures, discontinuity and somewhat harsh sound world of Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing seem far removed from the lightly‑textured sen no ongaku music it bears affinities with the new style in its definition and limitation of musical elements, its simplification of material distinctive formal clarity and most importantly, the first use of the rhythmic unison technique which forms the backbone of virtually all works written in sen no ongaku style.

Sen no ongaku Works: 1973 to 1980

To further aid the discussion of sen no ongaku, the following six essential features of this style are summarized as follows:

1. groupings of tones in order to encourage multiple interpretations

2. vertical formations in no way connected with functional harmony

3. non-teleological continuity

4. single texture throughout a composition

5. consistent use of asymmetrical rhythm throughout a composition

6. uni-sectional static form

It is important to remember, that in spite of the development of sen no ongaku these six features remain constant during the period 1973 – 1980. The flexibility of the sen no ongaku style is revealed here in terms of how it is able to incorporate a wide range of diversity while still adhering to these six principle features. We will begin this examination of Kondo’s sen no ongaku style with a discussion of melodic aspects. This is followed by an explanation of rhythm and meter and vertical formations. Next, structure and form are treated, before concluding with a discussion of mature works of the period.

Melodic Aspects - Gamut Technique

In the case of the works, Orient Orientation, Standing, and some other compositions written up to 1975, the limitation of pitch content “was decided on the basis of a chart of random numbers assigned to a gamut of sounds purposely chosen beforehand.”^{^[23]} These gamuts of sounds, unique to each composition, are arranged in various vertical and horizontal configurations, in an intuitive manner. The two gamuts shown below very closely resemble serial pitch-sets, but they are in no way treated as such, being merely the pitch material of the composition which is organized using a combination of random and intuitive procedures (Example 12)

In some sen no ongaku compositions, the line on which the composition is based is masked to varying degrees, making it somewhat difficult to assign it to any specific melodic category. In the work Falling, for example, the extremely elongated line played by the electric piano is overshadowed by the more prominent glissando texture of the three string instruments (Example 28).

In the case of Pass, the banjo line while clearly audible, is also somewhat obscured by the other four instruments which form a pointillist counterpoint to this line. Example 29, which is representative of the work as a whole, is heard more as a four-part texture than a single line with shadow notes. The main line of the banjo is “almost buried” in the texture of the “independent structure that could almost be called a figure for each instrument.”^{^[30]}

Example 29: Pass: page 3, second system

In Threadbare Unlimited, as a result of the dense harmonic texture, the original line in the top voice is veiled to such an extent that it cannot be clearly heard at all times (Example 30). In spite of the inaudibility of this line, we know from Kondo’s words that the work is based on a single line as he explains it as his “first timid attempt to apply somehow this kind of compositional methodology [Sen no ongaku] to thicker materials.”^{^[31]}

The work An Insular Style is rather exceptional in Kondo’s oeuvre in that it is one of the few compositions to employ conventional sounding melody which the composer describes as “...more clearly articulated and less abstract than in most of my works. Its melodic contour or phrase structure appears to be closer to conventional melodic writing, and therefore more accessible to the listener.”^{^[32]}

While the melodic writing in this work most closely conforms to the stylistic category of simple melodic style, it is somewhat different due to its very clear phrase structure with definite points of cadential closure. In order to highlight the difference between the quite similar simple melodic style and conventional melodic style, an excerpt from Orient Orientation (Example 31) is compared with an excerpt from An Insular Style (Example 32).

Example 30: Threadbare Unlimited: page 9, measures 119 – 127

Example 31: Orient Orientation: page 4, first and second systems

Example 32: An Insular Style: page 4, measures 39 – 42

As we have seen through the analysis of Orient Orientation, rhythm plays a very important role in contributing to the autonomy of single tones. Asymmetrical rhythm also creates the particular non-teleological, jagged continuity, characteristic of all sen no ongaku works. However, this is not to say that all of Kondo’s sen no ongaku compositions are written using asymmetrical rhythm only. In some pieces, a very symmetrical rhythm is employed in the form of a steady continuous pulse. These works share some affinities with American minimalist music in their continual repetition of small cells of pitch material over the entire composition, their relatively unchanging dynamic texture, and their complete lack of sectional contrast and musical depth.

The three works in the period 1973 to 1980 which conform to some minimalist characteristics include Standing (1973) (Example 34), Luster Gave Her the Hat and He and Ben Went On Across the Backyard (1975) (Example 35) and An Elder’s Hocket (1979) (Example 36). In these three compositions, a generally symmetrical rhythmic pulse is strongly prominent.

Example 34: Standing: page 2, second system

Example 35 employs a single tempo, dynamic and texture throughout the composition. While the eighth-note pulse is more or less constant throughout the entire work, small sections are defined by slightly different rhythmic variations as can be seen in the three systems of this example.

The excerpt from An Elder’s Hocket (Example 36) is representative of the work as a whole. As in the previous two examples, an eighth-note pulse is clearly audible throughout the entire composition. The use of occasional hemiola (the syncopated notes of the first beat of measure 71 and the last beats of measures 87 and 89) adds some slight rhythmic variation at certain points in the composition. But the use of this hemiola here, due to its relative infrequency, has an ornamental function and does not shift attention away from the steady eighth-note pulse.

Another work employing a regular rhythmic pulse, which extends the technique of tied note syncopation seen above even further is Walk for piano (1976) (Example 38). Syncopation is used in Walk in a structural, rather than ornamental manner. It is used so frequently in this work that the eighth-note pulse is almost unrecognizable at times, with the rhythmic stress continually shifting in an irregular manner over the course of the entire work.

In Example 37, within the space of only three systems, a great amount of rhythmic variation can be found. The eighth-note pulse predominates in the first measure of this example, but after entering the second measure, with the introduction of the sixteenth-note on the second half of the second beat, the pulse is interrupted. The eighth-note rest in the beginning of the third measure also interrupts the eighth-note pulse. Syncopation is introduced again in measures 4, 5 and 6. The syncopation in bar 6 is very prominent due to its rather extended duration of a dotted quarter-note. This extended duration has the effect of almost terminating the sense of the eighth-note pulse.

In Standing, Luster Gave Her the Hat and He and Ben Went On Across the Backyard and An Elder’s Hocket, there are few explicitly recognizable rhythmic patterns. In these three compositions written in uni-sectional static form, Kondo created a dynamically and texturally uniform rhythmic field in order to experiment with a new manner of listening that allows for multiple interpretations of rhythmic groupings.

In the case of music written in a single unchanging pulse, the only way groupings can be perceived is through stress or emphasis of certain notes in relation to others.^{^[33]} Kondo does in fact often employ stress at various points throughout the three compositions above, but this stress is very irregularly placed creating rhythmic ambiguity, which in turn, encourages multiple interpretations of specific rhythmic groupings. Of the three works above, Standing treats the link between rhythmic ambiguity and listening in the most sophisticated manner. In this work, due to the delicate balance of various asymmetrical rhythmic patterns, the listener is often at a loss as to where a particular rhythmic pattern or melodic phrase begins or ends. The deliberately ambiguous rhythmic groupings allow for a very rich listening experience in which the listener is pleasantly disorientated throughout most of the work. Of all the early sen no ongaku works, Standing most singularly exemplifies the composer’s aesthetic intentions. This work was one of the last to employ a pre-composed chart of random numbers assigned to a gamut of sounds to decide the pitch content of the melodic line throughout the composition (Example 39).

Example 39: Gamut of Sounds Used for Standing^{^[34]}

Due to the biased distribution of sounds resulting from the random method of choosing his pitches,

an overall quasi-modal (or ‘tonal’) flavor permeates the melodic line, since the biased distribution of sounds emphasizes some specific pitches at the expense of others, with the result that some of them almost sound like nuclear tones (or even tonics) in a tonal composition.^{^[35]}

After generating the material of the work using random procedures, Kondo then deleted any portion of the row which “was too obvious or too vague in its tonal feeling so as to obtain the right degree of tonal ambiguity.”^{^[36]} It is important to note the composer’s decision here to combine a systematic method of composing with an empirical one based on his own listening.

In conventional notation, the above expressions of one third or two thirds of a beat or rest can only be accomplished by using the closest rhythmic value in a symbolic manner. Kondo’s new notation is very close to an earlier example of a new notation created by Henry Cowell to reflect irregular note values. Cowell explains his new notation in the following manner:

Still another possibility opened up by the new notation is that of separating notes of triplet or other time values by placing between them notes of other systems. Thus in old notation three triplet notes or their equivalent must always be used together; in the new notation perhaps only one triplet note will be used between quarter notes,^{^[39]}

While Cowell’s 1/3 note in the above example does not have complete independence in the same manner as Kondo’s notation, Cowell’s quote seems to suggest that he was aware of the possibility of the complete independence of such a figure in the future.

In the period 1973 – 1980, the following works use Kondo’s new notation: Click Crack (1973), Pass (1974), Sight Rhythmics (both versions) (1975), Retard (1978), Strands I (1978) and Strands II (1980). Although this notation was not used in works written for large ensembles up to 1980, after this date, with the move towards complexity, we can find this rhythmic notation used in a much more intricate context in Res sonorae (1987) (Example 45).^{^[40]}

Circles in Example 45 are dynamic indications written by the composer. The use of the new rhythmic figure occurs in measures 35 and 38. In general Kondo restricts the use of this notation to chamber works of two to five instruments, but here it is used very effectively in an ensemble of fourteen players.

Vertical Formations

With the exception of The Shape Follows Its Shadow (1975), Threadbare Unlimited (1979) and A Shape of Time (1980), vertical formations in the works written in the period 1973 -1980 generally consist of two-note chords. These two-note chords have no relation to functional harmony and can be considered as simply colorings of single tones. These harmonic colorings (explained in detail in the analysis of Orient Orientation in Appendix A) occasionally expand to three-note chords as seen in Knots (1977) (Example 46). The consistent use of rhythmic unison in this excerpt, helps to maintain a balance between linear and harmonic elements.

In the case of Click Crack, vertical formations of four or more notes are written in the form of the barely audible piano harmonics (Example 47).

This discussion of vertical relations will close with a discussion of An Insular Style, a piece which in the composer’s words is “rather exceptional in this linear style of mine,”^{^[41]} due to the use of conventional melodic writing and tonal harmony. Continuing he states: “Harmony, although not supporting the melody line in a traditional sense, but just ‘shadowing’ that line to give it some coloring, is more unambiguously tonal than usual. Altogether, An Insular Style may sound much like a folk tune from an (imaginary) island.”^{^[42]}

Example 49: Strands II: page 7, third, fourth and fifth systems

Two factors contribute to the “unambiguously tonal” sound world in this work. These are conventional melodic writing in the upper two voices and the use of particular consonant intervals. One rather traditional aspect of this composition not found in earlier sen no ongaku works is the assigning of specific functions to the four instruments, with the flute and clarinet playing melodies, and the harp and percussion assigned to an accompanying role for the most part (Example 50). Here the harp has the clearest accompanying role by playing chords and single pitches in its lower range. The accompanying role of the percussionist is not felt as strongly as the harp’s, because the chords are played simultaneously on two instruments of very contrasting timbres. The indefinite pitch of the cowbells also weakens somewhat, the sounding of clear harmonies. Compared to the harp, which has the specific role of grounding the harmony, the percussion accompaniment has a more coloristic role.

Example 50: An Insular Style: page 10, measures 110 – 114

Tonal harmony is strongly suggested by the frequent use of consonant intervals and triadic harmony throughout the composition (Example 51).

Example 51: An Insular Style: page 1, measures 1 – 3

The third measure of Example 51 serves as a clear example of how tonality is emphasized through instrumental range and particular choice of intervals. The tonal harmony is reinforced by the range of the harp, with the low E flat (functioning here as a tonic), being played in combination with a very high G (3rd) in the glockenspiel part. The harmony here is strengthened even more as the preceding B flat and F in the harp part (which resonate through the entire bar) complete an E flat chord.

Most compositions of the first period are written in uni-sectional static form. That is to say, most works consist of one continuous, relatively uniform stream of music, with little textural, harmonic and dynamic contrast. These works are: Orient Orientation (1973), Standing (1973), Falling (1973), Click Crack (1973), Pass (1974), The Shape Follows Its Shadow (1975), Luster Gave Her the Hat and He and Ben Went Across the Backyard (1975), Walk (both versions) (1976), Knots (1977), Retard (1977), Strands I (1978), A Crow (1978), An Elder’s Hocket (1979), When Wind Blew (1979), Threadbare Unlimited (1979), An Insular Style (1980), A Shape of Time (1980) and Strands II (1980).^{^[45]}

A few works from the period 1973 to 1980 are structured in distinct contrasting sections and therefore fall outside the category of uni-sectional static form. They include: Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing (1973), Wait (1973) and Under the Umbrella (1976).^{^[46]}

Sight Rhythmics

One very important work in Kondo’s oeuvre which hovers between the two formal categories of uni-sectional static form and sectional form discussed above is Sight Rhythmics (1975). This work is one of the few sen no ongaku compositions involving separate movements. However, because these movements are almost identical to each other, with very slight changes from movement to movement, there is little sense of development over the course of the work. The composition can almost be likened to a single stream of music with rests inserted to occasionally break the continuity, in the same manner as Orient Orientation (see Appendix A). We know from reading Kondo’s words that this work was an important turning point in terms of how he treated form and larger structural divisions: “It was from Sight Rhythmics that I consciously started to search for ambiguities on the structural level that might traditionally be called form.”^{^[47]}

One of the distinguishing features of the ensemble version of Sight Rhythmics (for violin, steel drum, banjo, electric piano and tuba) is its unorthodox instrumentation. The distinctive instrumentation of five completely dissimilar instruments was chosen to emphasize individual sounds, as the timbres of these five instruments do not blend so easily. Looking at the first seven measures we can see that this work is written in pointillist melodic style with no real individual voice independence (Example 53). Looking carefully, it can be seen that in spite of the occasional overlapping of voices, for the most part, the texture consists of a single line played in a hocket-like manner by each instrument in succession. Due to the relatively close spacing of the notes of this line (apart from the very low notes in the tuba and very high notes in the violin) it can be quite readily distinguished by the ear.

While there are no recurrences of “pseudo-repetition” using completely symmetrical self-contained movements in future works, slightly different forms of “pseudo-repetition” can still be found. Viewed in retrospect, we can see that Sight Rhythmics was a kind of laboratory for Kondo to experiment with techniques of “pseudo-repetition,” which could easily be transferred to works of larger forces.

Under the Umbrella

Under the Umbrella (1972) is a unique composition in Kondo’s oeuvre as it is the only work in which the sen no ongaku method is applied solely to instruments of non-standardized pitch.^{^[54]} The work is written for five performers, each playing five cowbells, with the first performer also playing a low gong only at the end of the piece. Kondo specifies in the instrumentation of the work that “25 graduated cowbells” are to be distributed equally among the five performers in ascending order from the lowest to the highest sound in the following manner: The first player: numbers 1, 6, 11, 16, 21 and a low gong; the second player: numbers 2, 7, 12, 17, 22; the third player: numbers 3, 8, 13, 18, 23; the fourth player: numbers 4, 9, 14, 19, 24; the fifth player: numbers 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25. This particular distribution was decided in order to facilitate the rapid playing of adjacent pitches among all members of the ensemble which would be otherwise be impossible for one player to execute.

The very uniform sound world of Under the Umbrella represents a strong shift away from the sound world of almost all previous sen no ongaku works. This work is written in four movements of contrasting character which gives strong formal coherence to the composition. The specific character of each of the four movements is created by variations in tempo, texture and dynamics. This character is sustained throughout each movement by being written in uni-sectional static form.

The first movement, written in the quick tempo of q =126, is characterized by the use of a driving eighth-note pulse with frequent syncopation alternating between various densities of vertical aggregates, from single pitches to five-note vertical aggregates, as seen in Example 56.

Interestingly, the rather sparse-looking score does not reflect the rich musical effect of the rapid playing of the 25 graduated cowbells. Although the cowbells are not fixed in standard pitches, the ear still tends to group notes into melodic patterns in the same manner as other sen no ongaku works of this period. That is to say that there is a very strong sense of linkage from pitch to pitch. Other important aspects of sen no ongaku style in works composed from 1973 to 1980 can also be found in this movement. First, there is no dynamic contrast, with the entire movement being played mezzo forte. Second, all vertical aggregates are aligned in rhythmic unison with a clear absence of a contrapuntal texture. Third, and most important, the music is written in a continuous stream, without goal oriented movement or cadential closure.

By 1978 Kondo had refined certain aspects of his his sen no ongaku style. With the composition of Strands I (1978) the stark, uniform stream of music is transformed into a texture with a more sophisticated balance of linear and harmonic elements. This can be seen in the works When Wind Blew (1979), Threadbare Unlimited (1979) An Insular Style (1980), A Shape of Time (1980) and Strands II (1980).

In these six works the hocket-technique first encountered in Orient Orientation is more refined with the shifting back and forth between a greater number of voices. The asymmetrical rhythmic writing sounds more self-assured, and less mechanically derived, perhaps as a result of the composer’s decision to abandon pre-compositional devices such as use of pre-compositional gamuts in the determination of the overall form. According to Kondo the “actual structure and duration of the piece just comes out as a final result of a process based on my ‘listening experience’. This process does not involve any kind of formalistic approach. It is thoroughly empirical.”^{^[56]}

The compositions after 1978 are subtly organized with musical events having the sense of being more delicately placed in time than the earlier works based on gamuts. With the exception of Strands II, all the ensembles are larger and Kondo is now focusing on details of orchestration, in particular, with the problem of how to thicken the line with a richer texture.^{^[57]} We will explore the refinements of sen no ongaku of the late 1970’s through the examination of the two works Strands I (1978) and When Wind Blew (1979).

Strands I

Due to the very strong resemblance between Strands I and Sight Rhythmics these two works can be considered sister compositions. Similarities to Sight Rhythmics which can be clearly seen in Example 61 include the use of unconventional instrumentation of roughly the same number of instruments, a very sparse and uniform pointillist texture, and the employment of ambiguous phrasing which contributes to the autonomy of single tones.

Strands I is different from Sight Rhythmics in one essential aspect The former work is a uni-sectional composition written in a continuous stream, while the latter work is written in self-contained independent movements. The texture of the example above continues throughout the entire work, with an occasional thinning out when the number of instruments playing is reduced. If we compare Strands I to the earlier work Pass (1974) (Example 62) we can see how the sen no ongaku style has developed over a period of three years.

Looking at this excerpt from Pass we can see that the individual lines are relatively independent, with relations between parts much less controlled than in Strands I. Due to the tight control of relations between all seven parts of Strands I, the delicate balance of musical events being played in and out of rhythmic unison is clearly audible. The relations between parts in Pass, however, are not as controlled with the result that the rhythmic pacing of the piece sounds a little more haphazard and less refined. While both works use very irregular meters, the subtlety of the rhythm is more discernable in Strands I because there is less counterpoint and little dynamic contrast between instruments with all instruments sharing the same dynamic range from mezzo piano – mezzo forte. Sudden shifts in dynamics in Pass

serve to disrupt the balance between instruments by drawing immediate attention to particular pitches as central tones. This particular use of dynamics is abandoned after the composition of Pass, not to surface again until as late as 1984 with the composition of Antilogue.

When Wind Blew

A composition for a slightly larger ensemble than the previously treated works, which displays a definite refinement of sen no onagku, is When Wind Blew (1979). Kondo mentions that the composition of When Wind Blew and An Elder’s Hocket was one of his first attempts to apply the sen no ongaku style “to ensembles of more conventional instrumental combinations.” ^{^[58]} In this work the hocket-like style is more refined than in earlier compositions. This refinement lies in the keen attention to details of instrumentation through pitch doublings, the delicate balance of combinations of single pitches with two-note and three-note vertical aggregates, and the special concern with voice leading. In this composition the linear and vertical connections between tones and aggregates helps to maintain a quasi-tonal or modal atmosphere. Because tonality is never firmly established, with the rather ambiguous harmonic and melodic connections between pitches only occasionally creating quasi-cadential phrases, the work has a rather subtle and languid continuity.

This single movement composition, in spite of being written for twelve instruments “consists of a single, continuous line of pitches or groups of pitches, which were distributed note by note among the members of the ensemble.”^{^[59]} Viewing a page of the score it can be seen that the texture is in fact very thin, with each note clearly sounding as an autonomous musical event (Example 63).

Kondo explains his compositional intentions regarding the autonomy of single tones in the following way:

This kind of linear or ‘melodic’ writing, with scattered orchestration in a hocket-like manner, reflects my belief that each sound in music has its own life and presence. Even when a succession of sounds as a whole is perceived as a ‘melody’, I prefer that each constituent sound be placed in such a way that it can still be recognized aurally as an individual entity, separate from the rest and having its own character.^{^[60]}

Sound events in When Wind Blew are very carefully organized in order to allow for the clear sounding of each pitch in the composition. We will examine this representative passage (in Example 63) in detail to discover how Kondo achieves his aim of giving each sound “its own life and presence.”

Even when notes are arranged in two-note or three-note chords, the spacings are often very wide therefore aiding in the clear audibility of each pitch making up the chords. In the first beat of the first measure of this example, there is a four-note chord (B, F, D and E) played by five instruments with the B doubled by the violin and contrabass. Here we have a clear example of how Kondo’s orchestration contributes to the sounding of each pitch of a vertical aggregate as a single entity. The D being the lowest note of the chord, and lying in this particular range of the clarinet, is heard quite clearly. The flute, sounding over an octave higher than the clarinet at the interval of a major ninth does not fuse so strongly with the clarinet and is therefore clearly audible as an independent pitch. The B, which lies in the middle of the clarinet and flute pitches, is most easily hidden. In order to strengthen this pitch, and give it some identity through a slight change in color, it is doubled by the contrabass and the violin.

Finally, the highest note of the chord played by the first violin is clearly audible due to its register being a minor ninth higher than the flute pitch. In general, all notes in When Wind Blew are heard clearly because they are fixed in certain registers which gives them space to sound as single entities.

In the first beat of the following measure (m. 182), a low G# is doubled by bassoon and cello. Unison doubling here plays a very important role in terms of giving timbral identity to sound events. Due to its frequent repetition throughout the composition, this sound combination is heard as a tentative tonal center.

The next three-note chord in this measure (ignoring for the moment the inclusion of the non-standardized pitch of the cow bell as part of the chord) is very widely spaced and functions in a similar manner to the four-note chord in measure 181 explained above. The pitches of the final two-note chord played by viola and clarinet in measure 182 are clearly audible due to their contrasting register (a minor ninth apart) and color. In the first beat of measure 183 there is a high B natural played on piano two octaves and a semitone above a B flat played on a clarinet. This is followed by another widely-spaced two-note chord for viola and violin one octave and a perfect fifth apart. In the same manner as the chords from measure 181, the two notes of each of these two chords are clearly audible as autonomous sounds.

Continuing to the next chordal formation in this measure, the pizzicato contrabass tone played in combination with the violin harmonic and a pitch played by the bassoon in a high register, creates a three note formation (C, E and B ). Again as examined in the chords above, these three pitches are clearly audible due to their distinctive timbre and intervallic distance from each other. The remaining vertical formations in this excerpt need not be explained in detail as they function in the same manner as formations described above.

We conclude the analysis of this passage with reference to the two sustained cow-bell tremolos. The inclusion of the cowbells into an otherwise conventional ensemble is a device used by Kondo to offset the listener’s expectation, and to add an unstable element into an otherwise conventional sound world. These sustained cow-bell tremolos function as a kind of pedal tone to the surrounding pitches of the other instruments. Because of the extended duration of these tremolo passages throughout the work (the longest sounding continuously for 57 measures), the ear tends to hear these pitches as tonal centers. Shorter tremolo passages are sensed as a kind of pedal tone. In both cases, the presence of the sustained cow-bell tones has the effect of changing the way the listener perceives the intervals played by all of the remaining instruments. Certain intervals which have strong binding tendency with the cow-bell tones (unison, octave, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, and major third) are clearly emphasized, which has the overall effect of strengthening the sense of tonality or modality. A very important element of indeterminacy which must not be overlooked in this work, is the composer’s decision to not specify the pitch of the two cow-bells.^{^[61]} This indeterminate element adds a certain elasticity to the composition as each performance is heard in a slightly different manner depending on the particular choice of pitches of the cow-bells.

Repetition and variation play an important formal role in When Wind Blew serving to anchor certain chords and events in the listener’s ear in order to add familiarity in an otherwise completely abstract sound world. In this work a great amount of literal repetition of specific intervals and durations occurs, but these repetitions are relatively veiled because they are not punctuated by breaks of silence or changes in texture, and the orchestration of this repeated material is continuously varied throughout the composition.

Literal repetition is explained by the composer as “in itself static, leading to nowhere, while variation, if arranged logically as in classical music, has a directional and developmental dynamic of its own, what we call a ‘good discourse’.”^{^[62]} If we compare two sections of the work, which are virtually identical in terms of the specific durations of musical events and pitch material, we can see clearly how Kondo achieves great musical effect through variation by colorful re-instrumentation (Examples 64 and 65).

As we can see from glancing at Examples 64 and 65, the pitch material and gestures of each example correspond quite closely. We could term this very subtle variation of musical material a form of “pseudo-repetition.” Here, the material of Example 65 is so similar to the material of Example 65 that the listener is hard pressed to determine where the musical variation occurs. The material of Example 64 will be compared with the corresponding material of Example 65 using the following measure pairings: 17/30, 18/31, 19/32, 20/33, 21/34, 22/35 and 23/36.

Measures 17 and 30: Apart from the inclusion of the cow-bell tremolo, measure 30 is identical to measure 17 with the material of these measures being comprised of a two-note chord played in harmonics by the contrabass and the first violin.

Measures 18 and 31: The chord in measure 18 played by the flute, oboe and clarinet is re-orchestrated for strings in measure 31 played now by the second violin, viola and cello.

Measures 19 and 32: The three-note chord played by the flute, clarinet and horn in measure 19, is later played by the clarinet and two strings in measure 32.

Measures 20 and 33: The two-note chord in measure 20 played by the clarinet and horn is played in measure 33 by the flute and the clarinet.

Measures 21 and 34: A two-note chord played in harmonics by the cello and contrabass in measure 21 is played by three instruments in measure 34 with the contrabass playing the same note from measure 21 but doubled now by the clarinet. The flute replaces the cello in bar 34 completing the two-note chord.

Measures 22 and 35: The E in the first beat of measure 22 played by the oboe is later played by the horn in bar 35. The two piano pitches and single pizzicato contrabass pitch played in the second beat of measure 22 are altered slightly in measure 35 with one of the piano pitches being played now by the clarinet. The oboe and clarinet play the two-note chord in the last beat of measure 22. In the corresponding measure 35, while the oboe note remains, the clarinet pitch is played now by the bassoon.

Measures 23 and 36: Measure 23 and 36 are virtually identical apart from a very subtle change in color introduced in the latter measure through the doubling of the harmonic played by the contrabass with the flute.

Conclusion

This study has examined the origin and early development of the music of Jo Kondo through an analysis of the works written in the composer’s sen no ongaku style from 1973 to 1980. A clear understanding of the development of Kondo’s music through this period is important as the results of this development can be seen in works written from 1981 to the present. The essential aspects of sen no ongaku discussed here include: the concept of building a composition on a single melodic line, static form, the experimentation with a new kind of continuity based on an “endless pulse,” and the encouraging of a more active kind of listening to music from instant to instant by grouping sounds in non-hierarchical formations.

Mr. Bloomfield His Spacing (1973) is seen as an important pivotal work displaying aspects of both pre-sen no ongaku style and sen no ongaku style, and the radical shift in style in this year. Orient Orientation, is considered in detail (Appendix A) as the earliest manifestation of sen no ongaku and a series of works of the period 1973 to 1980 were examined from many different angles including the various forms of melodic writing, Kondo’s treatment of rhythm, harmonic aspects, larger structures and overall form.

Sight Rhythmics (1975) was treated in detail as the first sen no ongaku work in which the composer was consciously concerned with problems of form, in particular its break from the uni-sectional static form of all previous works and the new possibilities it offered in its succession of separate movements, From the composition of this work on, Kondo abandoned the use of pre-compositional gamuts and started to compose in a completely intuitive manner. This was also the beginning of the composer’s experimentation with ‘pseudo-repetition’, a very important compositional device which later surfaces in subsequent works throughout the composer’s oeuvre.

One of the most striking aspects of the composer’s sen no ongaku style is the paring down of material to a bare minimum in order to focus the listener’s attention on very subtle changes from measure to measure. Most of the works discussed here, written in uni-sectional static form, can be likened to laboratories for experimenting with the musical potential of a certain technique, such as dance-like rhythm, shadow or hocket technique, non-functional harmonic movement in the form of ‘hanging chords’ and textural contrast. The mature works composed from 1978 to 1980 are distinguished by their more refined hocket-like movement between voices, greater sensitivity to harmonic relations and very subtle balance of linear and horizontal elements.

Another striking aspect of structure in Kondo’s music is its virtual lack of a polyphonic texture and its corollary, the consistent use of rhythmic unison writing. This is a very conscious decision made to encourage the listener to hear sound events as individual entities rather than as merely parts of a greater structural whole. A contrapuntal texture clearly blurs this focus, so Kondo opts to link all sound events vertically in order to encourage the listening of sound events as single entities. In later compositions written after 1980, while these single sound events become thicker, the consistent use of rhythmic unison and complete lack of counterpoint, ensures that these sound aggregates are heard as individual sound events with their own singular identity apart from other sound events making up the composition.

APPENDIX A: Orient Orientation (1973): An Analysis of the First Sen no Ongaku Work

The first sen no ongaku work, Orient Orientation, for any two melody instruments of the same kind, sounds on first listening like "a row of endless tones that proceed without interruption, always wrapped out in a kind of simple artlessness"¹ as Kondo writes in the liner notes of his first LP album to explain the features of his new style. On closer inspection however, we are aware of a concise formal plan, a very particular control over rhythm and pitch relationships, and a clearly 'artful' playing with material that is characteristic of all the composer's work from 1973 to the present. Most important, this is the first work to employ throughout the entire composition, a consistent use of rhythmic unison which is one of the most conspicuous aspects of sen no ongaku style, running through the composer's entire body of work.

The distinctive sound world of Orient Orientation is produced by the strict limitation and fixation of musical elements. Only one gamut consisting of fifteen pitches of fixed range is used in this composition. The use of a single tempo indication, along with the lack of any crescendo, decrescendo or other expression markings, helps to maintain a uniform musical field without textural and dynamic contrast. Due to the complete absence of expressive gestures, and the meandering quality of its movement in time, the music has little sense of forward momentum, with sounds gently entering and receding as if placed in time, rather than composed. This consistent lack of goal‑oriented melodic movement likens the piece to an almost 'static field' of musical events.

Thus one of the more radical aspects of this first “linear music” work is its complete rejection of any kind of emphasis on the composer's subjectivity in the form of emotive or expressive musical gestures. As an alternative this music, "born neither of awe nor emotion,"² relies on a subtle play of rhythm and formal conciseness to structure and shape the musical image.

The sound world of Orient Orientation is organized in such a way that minute irregularities and shifts in focus become loci of attention. Examples of this include: asymmetrical rhythms, unexpected harmonies, continually varying lengths of durations of the shadow tones, alteration between rhythmic unison at the octave and rhythmic unison at other intervals, and shifting nuclear tones. To enable this attention to detail, Kondo sets up a field of continuously shifting sound events of more or less equal emphasis and stress. If certain gestures predominate too strongly, they become focal points upsetting the delicate balance established between sound events.

Orient Orientation is comprised of four sections clearly delineated by breaks of silence. These sections are distinguished from each other in terms of the way the material in each of the sections is treated. The first half of section one is written in strict unison between the two instruments, with the second half of the section employing hocket technique (Example 1). Section two is written using the hocket technique only (Example 2). Section three is written in strict unison between the two instruments for the most part, with the intermittent use of a few other intervals throughout the section (Example 3).³ Section four employs the hocket technique once again before a short ending in rhythmic unison (Example 4). As can be seen from viewing Examples 1 to 4, apart from the contrast between the techniques of unison writing and the hocket technique, the four sections of this work sound very much alike. Due to the lack of dynamic and textural contrast, and non‑teleological continuity, the work as a whole is generally heard as one long continuous strand of music with brief interruptions rather than a composition written in four distinct sections.

Example 3: Rhythmic Unison Writing in First Half of Section Three Using Combinations of Unison and Other Intervals, Orient Orientation: page 3, systems 5 ‑ 8

Example 4: End of Section Four Using Both Hocket Technique and Rhythmic Unison Writing, Orient Orientation: page 5, systems 5 ‑ 8

Orient Orientation is the first composition to employ “static form”, or to be more precise, uni‑sectional static form. The small breaks of silence in this composition are merely the arbitrary openings and closings of a door to an endless stream of sound. Listening to the first few bars of Orient Orientation can be likened to the experience of entering a concert hall in mid‑performance. Because this is non‑teleological music, without clear destination points or any sense of development, other means must be employed to move the music forward in time. This is achieved through the particular harmonic and melodic relations between pitches, and a subtle play of rhythm. As in all early sen no ongaku works, the pitch material and pitch range of Orient Orientation is relatively limited which serves to unify the composition and create its distinctive atmosphere. The gamut of sounds chosen prior to composition is made up of the seven notes B, C, D, Eb, F#, G, and A#. These notes are arranged over two octaves in the following fifteen note gamut (Example 5):⁴

Example 5: Orient Orientation, 15-Note Gamut

The melodic line running through the entire work is generated from this gamut using random procedures. Kondo explains that if each sound of a melodic line is chosen by a random method, the distribution of sounds becomes somewhat biased, emphasizing "some specific pitches at the expense of others, with the result that some of them almost sound like nuclear tones (or even tonics) in a tonal composition." So while "the gamut itself cannot really be called modal or tonal, the way of choosing each successive pitch from the gamut gives us this feeling."⁵ Kondo's method of choosing groupings of pitches from his gamuts of randomly derived tone rows is quite intuitive. Far from restricting the choice of pitches to a fixed ordering of tones, Kondo chooses to omit any portion of the row which he feels is "too obvious or too vague in its tonal feeling, so as to obtain the right degree of tonal ambiguity."⁶ This tonal ambiguity is achieved by carefully regulating the occurrence of nuclear tones throughout the work.

Examining the frequency of occurrence of all the pitches of the composition can shed some light on Kondo's manner of achieving a proper balance of "tonal ambiguity" throughout the work. Below is a chart showing the frequency of occurrence of all the pitches in the work by section (Example 6). Within each section, certain tonal centers are suggested by the frequency of occurrence of certain tones. In Section 1, B is the tone sounding most often. The most frequently sounding tone in Sections 2 and 3 is A#. F# becomes the tone with the highest frequency of occurrence in Section 4. Viewing the Total column, we can see that the three pitches F#, A# and B have the highest frequencies of occurrence. Over the course of the piece, due to this comparatively high frequency of occurrence (in relation to the remaining four pitches C, D, E flat,G), they are sensed as a kind of collective pitch center. These three pitches are highlighted all the more strongly because the remaining pitches share a lower, and comparatively similar frequency of occurrence over the course of the work (68, 66, 58 and 60 total occurrences respectively).

Viewing this chart we can see that there is a relatively even distribution of two‑note chords of different identity throughout the work. This even distribution of chords is very similar to the even distribution of pitches shown in Example 6. While the chords C/G and F#/G are the most frequently occurring chords in the set, due to their random distribution throughout the composition, they are not sensed as tonal centers and therefore cannot be considered as part of a hierarchical harmonic system.

Another form of incidental harmony results from the crossing of two melodic lines when playing out of strict unison (Example 9).

Example 9: Orient Orientation: page 1, system 7

Here in Example 9 we see Kondo's technique of shadow articulation in operation, with the upper voice leading and the lower voice following the upper voice in an irregular rhythmic pattern repeating the notes B, C, C, A#, F#, B before arriving together in unison on F#. The shadow notes in the lower voice are always held through the following notes in the upper voice until the next shadow articulation which has the effect of creating a slight harmonic blurring. Due to the slight time lag between the two voices a fleeting two‑point counterpoint is formed. This is the first appearance of Kondo's "pseudo‑polyphony." The resulting harmonies are not sensed as distinct harmonies in the same manner as the two‑note chords previously discussed because they clearly result from the linear movement of the two instrumental lines. However, this blurring of lines through the overlapping of voices adds an important element of ambiguity to the work. Kondo is interested in setting up a musical environment in which the listeners, confronted with an ambiguous harmonic field, are able to form their own individual interpretations of the vertical groupings throughout the work.

In Orient Orientation, rhythm plays an equally important role in maintaining a delicately balanced non‑expressive field of musical events by reinforcing the autonomy of individual tones. Orient Orientation employs additive rhythm only; divisive rhythm (the division of a note into unsymmetrical parts such as triplet, quintuplet, etc.) is not employed in this work. Thirteen units of duration are used starting from the shortest duration of a sixteenth‑note to the longest duration of a dotted whole note. For ease of recognition these note durations are reduced to numbers on the lower line of the following chart (Example 10).

Example 10: Durations Used in Orient Orientation

Because the repetition of durations suggests a regularly recurring pulse, it is able to aid in the grouping of tones in melody‑like configurations. Pulses within a random field are particularly important in terms of implying melody as Cooper and Meyer explain: "All pulses in a series are by definition exactly alike. However, preferring clear and definite patterns to such an unorganized potentially infinite series, the human mind tends to impose some sort of organization upon such equal pulses."¹⁴ While these pulses clearly aid in perceiving melody‑like groupings of tones, because these configurations of recurring pulses never last for more than three or four beats, the melody‑like groupings are continually broken off just after they begin. Due to the relatively random asymmetrical arrangement of durations, the listener is never quite sure when one melody begins and another ends. The ephemeral quality of the melody disappearing soon after it has begun, its uncertain beginning and end points, and its clear lack of teleological continuity are the three conditions which prevent pseudo‑melody from entering the category of conventional melody.

Continuity in Orient Orientation is achieved through the incessant linking of the single tones of the pitch gamuts in continually varying durations throughout the work. Kondo refers to these continually varying durations as "quasi‑determined units of duration." In opposition to this are "determined units of articulation" which refer to conventionally organized rhythmic groupings of sounds with clearly recognizable rhythmic patterns and strong teleological continuity. Kondo discusses "quasi‑determined units of duration" in terms of the continual variation of beat length.¹⁵ It is the stringing together of beats of varying duration, rather than rhythmic patterns, that creates, in Kondo's words, a "continuity based on an endless pulse."¹⁶

Along with pitch ordering, rhythm plays an equal if not more important role in contributing to the self‑sufficiency of single tones in Orient Orientation. Our discussion will begin by touching on Cooper and Meyer's theory of rhythmic structure, which most probably informed Kondo's thinking in the mid 1970's when he was formulating his theory of sen no ongaku. In his discussion of how the grouping of musical events or "stimuli" create the sensation of rhythm, Cooper and Meyer mention that "if the successive stimuli are so different from one another or so separate in time or pitch that the mind cannot relate them to one another, there will be no impression of rhythm. The stimuli will then be perceived as separate isolated tones."¹⁷

Kondo is interested in drawing attention to single tones in Orient Orientation, but this is not to imply that rhythm must be abandoned altogether to achieve this aim. Rather, Kondo uses asymmetrical rhythm consistently throughout this work to set up a field of tones hovering between conventional melody and an almost random sounding constellation of individual tones. Cooper and Meyer's idea of the relation between the distance between pitches and the comprehension of rhythm, is touched on in a concrete way in this composition. The distance between the tones of this work are close enough to suggest definite rhythmic (or melodic) groupings, but not regular and periodic enough to qualify as conventional rhythm (or melody). One of the most important functions of asymmetrical rhythm in this work is to set up an ambiguous rhythmic environment in which single tones can be heard in two ways simultaneously ‑ as single independent tones, and as pitches in pseudo‑melodic groupings. Let us refer to an example from the score to examine in detail how rhythm contributes to the self‑sufficiency of single tones (Example 12).

Segment C is even more rhythmically ambiguous than segment B. With the absence of clear cadences throughout this lengthy string of tones, the ear has difficulty in attempting to arrange these pitches into melodic groupings. Thus the syntactical devices of “musical phrase,” “”sentence” or “period” cannot apply here. This segment is characterized by very asymmetrical rhythmic grouping, with little or no conventional melodic attraction to cadential end points, giving the tones in this section much more independence than the tones in the preceding two sections. This string of independent or self‑sufficient individual tones, viewed in its entirety is representative of the 'static field' continuity referred to earlier in this study. At the end of this segment is a strong closing cadence incorporating a perfect fifth, but arising even more unexpectedly that the cadence at the end of segment B.

Segment D is heard¹⁸ as a distinct phrase due to the clearly audible grouping of three durations with a definite melodic shape. Segment E is very similar to segment C in terms of its manner of continuity. A long string of twenty‑three tones of the varying durations of quarter notes, dotted quarter notes and a single eighth note are heard before reaching the largest duration of a half note. But this half note, being very close in value to the preceding dotted quarter notes, does not sound like a point of rest as explicitly as the final quasi-cadential final pitches of segments A, B, C or D. It is rather sensed as a short pause, or provisional point of rest, between a more cadential‑sounding dotted quarter note three and a half systems later.

Viewing all the segments of this example together we can see that the tones of segments A, B and D form more or less conventional melodic groupings, while the tones of segments C and E have a markedly stronger independence than the tones of the other segments. This balancing of segments written in conventional melodic style, with segments written in a pseudo‑melodic manner is very important in terms of creating ambiguity on a macro‑structural level. Depending on the manner of listening, these segments can also be broken down into smaller middle structures delineating audible groupings of tones as shown by B2, C2, C3, C4, C5, E2 and E3.

There is one more level of rhythmic detail in Orient Orientation which helps to encourage the independence of tones. This is the asymmetrical rhythm of the repeated shadow tones. The varying shadow tone durations throughout the work create another independent level of rhythmic articulation which we will refer to as “sub‑rhythm.“ This asymmetrical sub‑rhythm of the shadow tones contributes very strongly to the autonomy of single tones (Example 13).

Example 13: Asymmetrical Sub‑Rhythm of the Shadow Tones, Orient Orientation: page 1, system 7

The numbers written below the staff of Example 13 represent the length of time in sixteenth‑notes between the sounding of the tone in the upper voice and the sounding of its shadow tone in the lower voice. Numbers in quadrangles denote durations of unison tones. In order to facilitate the quick viewing of all of the shadow tone durations in the first section of the work employing the hocket‑like shadow tone technique, rather than referring to the score which is somewhat difficult to read quickly, the durations are arranged in numerals corresponding to the durations in the chart of Example 10 (Example 14). (This chart is to be read from top to bottom and left to right).

Example 14: Durations Between the Sounding of Tones and Shadow Tones in Section One of Orient Orientation

(p. 1 system 7, second measure to p. 2 system 6, first measure)

Looking at this chart of durations of Example 14 we notice that in general, the shadow tones (numbers not encased in quadrangles) lag one sixteenth‑note or one eighth‑note behind the primary pitches with occasional interjections of slightly longer durations of dotted eighth‑notes and quarter‑notes (represented by numbers 3 and 4 respectively). Unison tones in boxes are relatively evenly distributed throughout the section adding yet another element of rhythmic variation to this shadow tone section. The sound shadows contribute to the independence of the single tones in the work by drawing attention to them through repetition in irregular patterns. If the hocket‑like durations were all equal, the ear would soon grow accustomed to them and consequently other syntactic elements would come to demand the ears attention. But Kondo's hocket rhythm is so irregular, that even after several listenings, the listener is unable to predict the rhythmic placement of the shadow notes. As a result of the focus of attention on these slight rhythmic details, the single tone is highlighted or "dismembered"¹⁹ in Kondo's words, from hierarchical groupings of tones.

In Orient Orientation Kondo experiments with subtle shifts of rhythm to encourage a new kind of listening. The use of "unregulated," beat lengths of various durations throughout the composition compels the listeners to continually adjust their focus of attention as the work unfolds. "This listening is experienced as a journey of the appearance and disappearance of the nuclear tones which completely transcends ones expectation. Depending on the 'listener' and the 'way of listening' the usage is different."²⁰ Continual adjustment is necessary because fulfillment of expectation is repeatedly circumvented. Certain rhythmic groupings sensed by the ear as primary for a few beats, are soon abandoned and replaced with other note groupings suggesting other rhythmic configurations.

^{^[1]} This paper is take (with minor alternations) from the author’s Ph, D, Dissertation: John Cole,“An Introduction to the Music of Jo Kondo: The Origin and Development of his ‘Sen no Ongaku’ (Linear Music) Style,” Elisabeth University of Music, January 2006 (424p.). Chapter two of the dissertation treats the earliest definition of the term sen no ongaku, while chapter three is an overview of the composer’s sen no ongaku style seen through works composed from 1973 - 1980.

² Jo Kondo, Sen no Ongaku (LP ALM Records, AL-1, 1974), liner notes. Translated by Joaquim M. Benítez.

³ While only one system is included in this example, it is important to note that this short excerpt is structurally and stylistically representative of the work as a whole. Almost all of Kondo’s compositions up to 1980 are generally comprised of a single texture with very few contrasting sections. For this reason, all the examples in this paper are rather truncated.

⁴ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku

⁵ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku

⁶Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku. Because the role of the listener is so essential in terms of completing the structure in the early sen no ongaku compositions, the best way to fully grasp Kondo’s idea of “manifold positionings” within a sound space is to listen to one of the early sen no ongaku pieces in its entiretly.

⁷ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku

⁸ Both terms are only briefly introduced in is explained later at length in the article “Articulation” published in Episteme in 1977 (republished as a chapter of his book Sen no Ongaku in 1979), the term “sound shadow” is not treated in any depth in any other consecutive writings. In spite of its brief mention in the liner notes to his first LP, due to its direct relevance to all the compositions recorded on his first record album, and because of its obvious linkage to a hocket-technique employed in various works written throughout Kondo’s career, this author has decided to include a brief discussion of these terms.

⁹ See Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku .

¹⁰ The instrumentation of this work is for any three melody instruments of different families.

¹¹ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku

¹² Ibid.

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ Ibid.

¹⁵ The terms “gamut” and “note row” are used interchangeably.

¹⁶ Schoenberg explains his tone rows as “invented to substitute for some of the unifying and formative advantages of scale and tonality .... the basic set functions in the manner of a motive” (Style and Idea. London: Faber and Faber, 1984, p. 219). Kondo’s conception of a sen no ongaku row could not be further from this form of row described by Schoenberg. A sen no ongaku row is decidedly non-structural in that it is not used to unify a work in any kind of architectonic manner. Rather, Kondo’s rows of tones can be thought of as almost arbitrary collections of notes organized in such a way that the listener’s attention is drawn to each individual note rather than collections of notes forming melodies or motifs. In the composer’s words: “Liner Music, considered as a row of tones articulated in single note units, acquires a continuity based on an endless pulse.” (Jo Kondo liner notes to Sen no Ongaku.)

¹⁷ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no Ongaku.

¹⁸ Jo Kondo, The Art of Being Ambiguous: From Listening to Composing,” Contemporary Music Review, Vol.2, no.2 (1988), p. 19.

¹⁹ Ibid.

²⁰ Ibid., p. 17.

²¹ Kondo’s University of York Music Press catalogue does not include mention of the use of cowbells in this work, although according to the score, the instrumentation, is 2 violins, 1 viola, 1 violoncello, and 4 cowbells (of different pitch).

²² The other works using graphic notation include modulation (1970), Breeeze (1970), and Jo-ka (1986). The instructions for Jo-ka are somewhat elaborate but not as involved as the instructions for Mr. Bloomfield, His Spacing.

24 Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 20.

25 Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku, p. 105.

26 Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 21.

27 Kondo’s first LP album includes the compositions: Orient Orientation (1973), Standing (1973), Falling (1973), Click Crack (1973) and Pass (1974).

^{^[27]} This division into three melodic styles is not to imply that within one work two or more styles cannot be combined. We will discover through an analysis of selected compositions throughout the composer’s entire body of work, that with the gradual move towards complexity, two, or even three melodic styles may exist in one work.

²⁹ Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 17.

30 Ibid., p. 19.

^{^[30]} Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no ongaku.

^{^[31]} Jo Kondo, Hunisuccle (Fontec, FOCD2515, 1994), liner notes, p. 6.

^{^[32]} Jo Kondo, Jo Kondo, Chamber Music, (Hat hut records 110, 1998), liner notes, p. 3.

^{^[33]} Cooper and Meyer in the following quotation explain rhythm in the following manner: “Rhythm may be defined as the way in which one or more unaccented beats are grouped in relation to an accented one.”(Grosvener Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer. The Rhythmic Structure of Music. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960, p. 6).

^{^[34]} See Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 20.

^{^[35]} Ibid.

^{^[36]} Ibid.

^{^[37]} Ibid., p. 21.

^{^[38]} Ibid., p. 21.

^{^[39]} Henry Cowell. New Musical Resources. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp. 58 - 65.

^{^[40]} Works written after 1978 and up to 2000 using this notation are Ars brevis (1988), Vox humana (1988), Pastoral (1989), Hypsotony (1989), Fern (1990), Monochromy (1992), Petteia (1993), Pergola (1994), Three Songs of the Elderberry Tree (1995), Winsen Dance Step (1995), Durante l’inverno (1995), Quickstep and Slow Ending (1996), Gardenia (1997), Nocturnal (1997), A Prospect of the Sky (1997), Syzygia (1998), Pillars of Time (1999), and A Shrub (2000).

^{^[41]} Jo Kondo, liner notes to Jo Kondo, Chamber Music, p. 3.

^{^[42]} Ibid.

^{^[43]} Jo Kondo, liner notes to Jo Kondo, Chamber Music, p. 3.

^{^[44]} Jo Kondo, liner notes to A Prospect of the Sky, p. 14.

^{^[45]} This is not an inclusive list. We will find examples of uni-sectional style in works written after 1980. However, the great majority of works written in this style are found in the period 1973 -1980.

46 It is important to note however that the individual sections of Under the Umbrella are written in uni-section static form as shown in the following discussion of this work.

^{^[47]} Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 21.

^{^[48]} Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” pp. 17 and 19.

^{^[49]} See Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku, p. 143. Kondo’s term sanso applies only to the ensemble version of this work. The “scattered playing” effect is greatly diminished, if not completely absent in the piano version due to the lack of timbral contrast of individual voices. Sanso is also discussed in another dissertation including a detailed analysis of Sight Rhythmics. See Tomomi Ohrui, “A Comparative Study of the Music of John Cage and Kondo Jo.” D.M.A. dissertation. The Manhattan School of Music, 1995, pp. 91 – 92.

^{^[50]} Jo Kondo, Gardenia (ALM records, ALCD-47, 1998), liner notes, p. 8.

^{^[51]} Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 25.

^{^[52]} Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku, p. 127.

53 Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 25.

^{^[54]} The only other composition written for instruments of non-fixed pitch entirely is Wait (1973).

^{^[55]} The score can give some confusion as it appears that pitches are doubled by different players. It should be remembered that sounds are notated as pitches to indicate the relative register of each of the player’s five cowbells as specified in the beginning of the piece.

^{^[56]} Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 19.

^{^[57]} See Jo Kondo, liner notes for Hunisuccle, p. 6.

^{^[58]} Jo Kondo, Near and Far (ALM Records, ALCD-45, 1996), liner notes, p.11.

^{^[59]} Ibid.

^{^[60]} Ibid.

^{^[61]} The instruction in the instrumentation page of the score is as follows: “Two Suspended Cow-bells (rather big size) of different pitches.”

^{^[62]} Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 25.

^{^[63]} The last two quotations are from Jo Kondo, “The Art of Being Ambiguous...,” p. 25.

¹ Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku (LP ALM records, AL‑1,1974), liner notes translated by Joaquim M. Benítez.

² ibid.

³ The intervals in Example 3, in order of appearance are: perfect fifth, two octaves, octave, octave, perfect fourth, tenth, perfect fifth, perfect fifth, minor second, octave and octave.

⁴ This gamut is included in Kondo's own description of this work in Sen no ongaku, p. 105.

⁵ Jo Kondo, "The Art of Being Ambiguous: From Listening to Composing," Contemporary Music Review, Vol. 2, no. 2 (1988), p. 20.

⁶ Ibid. p. 20. The two quotations in this paragraph are loose reiteration of Kondo's earlier description of the function of his pitch gamuts in Sen no ongaku. See pp. 107 ‑ 114.

⁷ Unison pitches and unsynchronized hocket pitches of the same tone are counted as single tones in this chart. That is to say, that in cases where two identical pitches follow in close succession, only the first note is recorded, as the second note is merely the 'shadow' tone of the first. Octave distinctions of the pitches are not made here because, when listening to this very texturally uniform music, all octaves of a particular pitch tend to be registered by the ear as equivalent in terms of their function as nuclear tones.

⁸ This shifting of the distribution of the pitches is not necessarily planned out in a conscious manner. We know however, from Kondo's writings, that he omits portions of the row in order to maintain "the right degree of tonal ambiguity," so this author is assuming that the composer also planned the distribution of the frequency of occurrence of the pitches within sections through his listening "carefully to the pitch row created by individual sounds chosen from a random chart..." ("The Art of Being Ambiguous...," p. 20).

¹¹ See Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku, p. 114.

¹² Conversation with the composer, Elisabeth University, July 25, 2004.

¹³ Because the relatively even distribution of duration of this section is replicated in the second unison section of the work, the analysis of this one section will suffice to explain the general operation of rhythm in both unison sections.

¹⁴ Grosvener Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer. The Rhythmic Structure of Music. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960, p. 3.

¹⁵ For the last three quotations see Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku, p. 116.

¹⁶ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no ongaku.

¹⁷ Grosvener Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer. The Rhythmic Structure of Music. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960, p. 9.

¹⁸ It must be remembered that this segment, along with the other segments delineated in this example are all this author's interpretations of groupings (or non‑groupings) of tones. When listening to this excerpt, other listeners might extract completely different groupings.

¹⁹ Jo Kondo, liner notes to Sen no ongaku.

²⁰ Jo Kondo, Sen no ongaku, p.103.